THE AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN ARMY 1914-18

The aim of this chapter is to give the collector sufficient background knowledge of the way that the Austro-Hungarian army was formed and manned, so that identification of units etc whose rubber stamps appear on items of mail can be made more thorough and interesting. It is a vast and complicated subject and this can only be a brief introduction to it.

Every male in the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy had to be available for military service from 1st January of the year in which his 19th birthday fell until 31st December of the year in which he became 42. The population was made up of many races, each with its own language: German speaking Austrians, Hungarians, Czechs, Slovaks, Poles, Ruthenians, Croats, Serbs, Slovenes, Romanians, Italians and Islamic Slavs. Thus it was necessary to arrange, whenever possible, that men from one area who spoke one tongue, served together. The Army therefore was based upon a 'territorial' model, and the Monarchy was broken down into areas for manning purposes. These areas were called Ergänzungsbezirke; literally, districts that found complements of men for the Army and the Navy. On the same lines the Army was organised in peacetime in sixteen corps Districts (Militärterritorial(Korps)bezirke), each having under command a number of divisions, each with its own brigades, and all units that it required to operate in the field.

As an example, XII Korps was based on Hermannstadt, with 16 and 35ID there, and 38HID at Klausenberg; all within Transylvania. The eight IR and four HIR that made up the six brigades of these divisions found their men from that area, and the languages spoken by them were German, Magyar or Romanian. In some units all three tongues were used, but it was normal for the one used by the majority to become the regimental language (Regimentssprache). Commands were given and written in German, except in the Honvéd where Magyar was used; all men had to learn enough German to understand the essential words in use. In the Honvéd, Magyar was the language of command, but when operating with other parts of the army as a whole, even the Honvéd had to understand German. Details of the districts mentioned in this paragraph will be found in Chapter 3, where the appendices show just how they were organised and what the formations were that each was interested in.

Certain abbreviations have been introduced already. These and many others, together with a selection of military terms, in both German and Magyar, will be found at Appendices A and B to this chapter.

Reference has already been made to the Honvéd, and so the next step is to explain the parts that this Army was made up from. For there were three elements, separate in many ways, in which the man might do his full time service. The size of each was governed by two factors. First of all the General Staff decided what size and shape of Army was required to meet the defence plans as agreed with the Foreign Office and the Monarch. Secondly, and totally limiting in peacetime, there was the amount of money voted by the Parliaments in Wien and Budapest. This second factor controlled the number of men that could be called for full time service each year. Thus only about a fifth of those actually available were called up in the years immediately prior to 1914, and it was not unknown for a man's full time service to be cut when the money was short! For in addition to the pay of the men, there was still equipment to be renewed and new items to introduce as well as day-to-day running costs. The result was that the Austro-Hungarian Army that mobilised in 1914 was not really ready for modern war on the scale that it had to face. And it paid the price.

So to the three parts of the Army. First of all was the so-called Common Army with its unit titles preceded by the letters k.u.k. [see Chapter 1 for an explanation of the k formula!]. Next were the armies of the two parts of the Monarchy; the k.k. Landwehr and its Hungarian counterpart, the Honvéd.

Reference has already been made to the fact that each man had to be available for military service between the ages of 19 and 42. This was called his Landsturmaufgebot: that is, military forces service. The whole span of 24 years was divided into two parts: from 19 to 37 and from 38 to 42. Men found fit and suitable from each Erganzungsbezirk were selected for full time service to begin on the 1st January of the year in which their 21st birthday fell. With the exception of those who went to the cavalry or artillery (who did three years), all did two years full time service with one part or another of the Army. Selection for the kuk, kk, or ku elements was a matter of ballot and race. Once a man had completed his full time service, he was placed on the reserve for 10 years (7 in the case of the cavalry and artillery). During this time he had to do three periods of four weeks training if he had served in the kuk army. A kk Landwehr man did a total of 20 weeks training in his entire reserve time, and the Honvéd man did 25 weeks.

At the end of the period on the reserve the man was placed on the Landsturm rolls of his district and there did no further training but had to be available up to the age of 42. Both the kk Landsturm and its Hungarian counterpart, M.kir. Népfelkelö formed no units until required, and then the plan was for the kk part to form infantry units only, while the ku part was to form infantry and cavalry units. During the war both parts formed units of many kinds to meet the needs of the moment, and the top age for Landsturm service was raised to 50 and later to 55; with the proviso that men aged between 50 and 55 would only be required to perform essential but unarmed military tasks.

It should be remembered that there was a great number of men who did no full time service. Those that were physically fit took the Oath of Allegiance and were placed on a general list called the Ersatz Reserve. Certain categories of men were placed automatically in this reserve: sole dependants of families, schoolmasters, seminary students and certain classes of forestry and agricultural workers for example. Men on the Ersatz Reserve did ten weeks basic military training and remained liable for full time service in peace and war, being placed on their Landsturm rolls at the age of 33.

A word must be interjected here about the Navy. As noted in Appendix B to Chapter 3, there were certain Ergänzungsbezirke (3) that found men for the Kriegsmarine. Once they had done their full time service of four years, they did five on the reserve and then a further three with the kuk Seewehr, the equivalent of the Landwehr, before going on the naval Landsturm rolls.

Men from Bosnia-Herzegovina did two years full time service with bosnian-herzegovinian regiments of infantry and other units reserved for them. There was no Landwehr or Landsturm in these provinces and after their full time service, they were transferred to the First Reserve, and then as they became older, to the Second and Third Reserves.

Thus far the conscript has been dealt with. Now it is time to consider those who volunteered for military service. Men could volunteer to serve as regular soldiers provided they conformed to the nationality, age and health requirements, and were not criminals. Recruits under the age of 19 could be accepted with their father's permission. Foreigners could join with the sanction of the Monarch and of their own government. Regular soldiers normally served only with k.u.k. units, but up to five percent of the soldiers in both the k.k. Landwehr and k.u. Honvéd were permitted to be regulars. They served in the first instance for three years and could then re-engage for periods of three years at a time. Reserve service was expected of them on retirement.

Appendix C to this chapter explains the Officer Corps in peace and war, and also includes details of Military Officials. In addition there were One-Year Volunteers (Einjährig- Freiwillige), who were better educated men who could finish their professional etc studies before serving for one year, which had to be completed before their 24th birthday. Details of these and of Non-Commissioned 0fficers are also at Appendix C.

Once the war began, transfer to the reserve was suspended, the minimum age for recruitment was dropped to 18 and, as has been noted already, the maximum age for service was raised to 50 and later to 55. The system explained in this chapter was designed to provide a large pool of trained men who could be, and were, called upon to serve in time of need.

Appendix A to Chapter 2
INDEX OF GERMAN TERMS USED BY THE AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN ARMY DURING WORLD WAR 1

This Index is designed to assist the collector of Austrian Feldpost items 1914-18 to understand the unit etc marks upon those items. It is not meant to show every unit designation, but collectors ought to be able to work out from it most of the unit titles they see that are in the German language. Hungarian titles are dealt with in Appendix B. The full stops used in unit titles and abbreviations by the Austrian army have not been shown here. For example k.u.k. has been shown as kuk.

LANDWEHR

HONVED

Honvéd = ku Landwehr

HIR = Honvédinfanterieregiment

HHR = Honvédhusarenregiment

HFAR = Honvédfeldartillerieregiment

Appendix B to Chapter 2
INDEX OF HUNGARIAN TERMS USED BY THE AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN ARMY DURING WORLD WAR I

This Index gives the terms that collectors can find on items of military mail emanating from the Hungarian units of the Austro-Hungarian army 1914-18. lt is not exhaustive. Listed are abbreviations where known, and the German and English meaning of the terms, where this is possible. The full stops used in unit titles and abbreviations are not shown here unless they clarify the meaning. All 'double dotted Os' are printed ö even if they should be ő.

APPENDIX C TO CHAPTER 2
OFFICERS, MILITARY OFFICIALS AND NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICERS

GENERAL

1. The Austro-Hungarian Army was remarkable for the number of different corps of officers and different kinds of military officials.

2. All officers and military officials who drew a salary - as opposed to rank and file (Mannschaft) - and aspirant officers and aspirant officials, who were paid at daily rates (Löhnungbeziehen), were known as Gagisten.

3. The term Gagist included, besides all officers and officials graded as officers, certain military officials who had no place in the hierarchy of officers, and who were known as Gagisten ohne Rangklasse; these latter were regarded as combatants (Personen des Soldatenstandes).

4. In Austria-Hungary, not only in the Army and Navy but also in the Civil Service, all officers, officials and civil servants were graded in one of twelve hierarchic classes (Rangklassen), both for purposes of pay and of general precedence. These classes, with their corresponding military ranks, may be set out as follows:

5. The following list shows the categories of officers and officials covered by the term Gagist.

• Officers (Offiziere)
• (VII) Military Officials (Militärbeamte); see paragraph 11
• (VIII) Gagisten ohne Rangklasse
• (I) Combatant officers (Offiziere des Soldatenstandes); see paragraph 6
• Non-combatant Officers, eg: see also paragraph 10
• (II) Chaplains (Militärgeistliche)
• (III) Medical Officers (Militararzte)
• (IV) Judge Advocates (Offiziere fur den Justizdienst oder Auditore)
• (V) Landsturm Technical Officers (Landsturmingenieuroffiziere)
• (VI) Paymasters (Truppenrechnungsführer)

The Roman numeral in front of each category above denotes the place in order of precedence (Rangordnung) of officers etc of that category. Thus a chaplain of the 6th Rangklasse took precedence over a medical officer of the same Rangklasse.

COMBATANT OFFICERS (Offiziere des Soldatenstandes)

6. The grades of combatant officers were as in the following sub-paragraphs. For badges of rank see paragraph 29.

a. General Officers (Generalität)

b. Regimental Officers (Offiziere der Truppenkörper)

The above three ranks were field officers (Stabsoffiziere)

c. General Staff Officers, belonging either to the Generalstabskorps, the Artillery Staff (Artilleriestab) or to the Engineer Staff (Geniestab). The officers of the General Staff were normally divided into three categories as follows:

• Officers of the Generalstabskorps: these had passed the Staff College (Kriegsschule) course, and had been attached (zugeteilt) for a probationary period to the General Staff, a limited number being eventually selected for the Generalstabskorps.
• Officers attached to the General Staff: selected from those who had passed the Kriegsschule course, or who had proved to be above average at the Korps-Offiziersschule of their corps district.
• Officers detailed (kommandiert) to the General Staff from their regimental establishment.

d. Engineer Officers (Ingenieuroffiziere); officers of the Clothing and Equipment Branch (Monturverwaltungsbranche); officers of the Corps of Quartermasters (Proviantoffiziere); and officers of the Armeestand - see paragraph 17.

NOTES

1. Included among the Engineer Officers were the military construction engineers upon whom devolved the construction and maintenance of such buildings and works as did not form part of actual fortifications. The various ranks of these officers and their respective grades (Rangklassen) were as follows:

2. Officers of the Clothing and Equipment Branch had no special title, but retained their normal regimental rank.

3. The highest rank in the Corps of Quartermasters was that of captain.

4. Officers of the Technical Artillery, who supervised the ordnance factories and depots in peacetime, and on mobilisation saw to the care and repair of small arms and artillery equipments, were known as Artillerieingenieure. They ranked as combatant officers and were graded like the officers of military works in Note 1. above, from an Artilleriegeneralingeneur to an Artillerieingenieurassistent.

ASPIRANT OFFICERS AND ASPIRANT OFFICIALS

7. Aspirant officers were classified as combatants (Personen des Soldatenstandes) but not as combatant officers, though in practice ensigns, cadets and aspirant cadets performed the duties of combatant officers in war. Such officers included:

• Ensigns (Fähnriche)
• Deputy-Quartermasters (Proviantoffizierstellvertreter)
• Deputy-Paymasters (Rechnungsführerstellvertreter)
• Deputy-Assistant Medical Officers (Assistenzarztestellvertreter)
• Cadet (Kadetten) and Aspirant Cadets (Kadettaspiranten)

8. Aspirant officials were of two categories: combatant (Beamtenaspiranten des Soldatenstandes) and non-combatant (Militärbeamtenaspiranten). Among the former were Deputy-Assistant Supply Officers (Verpflegssaksessiststellvertreter) and Aspirant Supply Officers (Verpflegsaspiranten)

9. In 1909 the rank of aspirant officer or aspirant official was given to the above, in order to improve their military and social status; formerly they had come under the category of non-commissioned officers. Only ensigns, cadets and aspirant cadets, however, ranked as subaltern officers and were admitted as members of the officers mess of the unit to which they belonged. All aspirant officers and aspirant officials were classified in the 12th Rangklasse.

NON-COMBATANT OFFICERS

10. The various ranks of non-combatant officers and their respective grades (Rangklassen) are shown in Annex 1 to this appendix.

MILITARY OFFICIALS

11. The various ranks of officials and their respective grades (Rangklassen) are shown in Annex 2 to this appendix.

PROMOTION OF OFFICERS

12. In the Austro-Hungarian Army the promotion of all officers and of higher officials was the prerogative of the Monarch; that of the lower officials took place through the k.u.k. Kriegsministerium.

13. For the purposes of promotion up to and including the rank of Oberstleutnant officers were classified in thirteen groups. These were known as Konkretualstände, each branch having a separate list of seniority:

• General Staff (Generalstabskorps)
• Engineer Staff (Geniestab)
• Artillery Staff (Artilleriestab)
• Infantry, Jager and Technical Troops
• Cavalry
• Field and Mountain Artillery
• Fortress Artillery
• Medical Service (Sanitätstruppen)
• Train
• Corps of Engineer Officers (Ingenieuroffizierskorps)
• Clothing and Equipment Branch (Monturverwaltungsbranche)
• Officers of the Corps of Quartermasters (Proviantoffizierskorps)
• The Armeestand - see paragraph 17.

14. In principle, promotion went by seniority up to and including the rank of Major; by selection and seniority for higher ranks up to the rank of Generalmajor; and by selection entirely above that rank. The Monarch, however, could promote officers out of their turn (aussertourlich). In peace-time before an officer could be promoted to the rank of captain he must first pass satisfactorily through a course at a Korpsoffiziersschule. Before promotion to field officer (Stabsoffizier) an officer of the k.u.k. Army must have passed successfully a test in tactical fitness (Stabsoffizierprufing); if he belonged to the k.k. Landwehr or the Honvéd, he must have passed a similar course held at Wien or Budapest.

15. Accelerated promotion was given to Oberleutenant and Hauptmann/Rittmeister of the Generalstabskorps, Geniestab and Artilleriestab. No promotion, however, could take place unless the confidential report (Qualifikationsliste) was favourable.

16. There were no compulsory rules for the age of retirement of officers, but as a general principle, they were retired at the age of 60, or after 40 years of service.

17. A certain number of combatant officers of the k.u.k. Army, who were employed permanently in certain civilian or semi-military appointments for which they were specially qualified, but who on account of age or some physical defect were unsuitable for active service, were classified as belonging to the Armeestand. In the k.k. Landwehr and Honvéd, such officers were known as Offiziere in Lokalanstellungen. There were three categories of officers in the Armeestand: Officers specially employed; Officers in sedentary duties; Officers employed in the Chancelleries (Kanzlein) and auxiliary services.

18. Before the war the average lengths of service in the various ranks was as follows:

RECRUITMENT OF OFFICERS

19. Recruitment of Officers in peace time: Officers were normally recruited either from cadet schools, from the military academies - for which special preparatory schools existed - or from one-year volunteers (Einjährig Freiwillige). There was also at Hirtenburg a school for the orphan sons of officers (Offizierswaiseninstitut). These military educational establishments were known as Militär-Erziehungs und Bildungsanstalten, and were grouped under a general inspector.

a. The Cadet Schools (Kadettenschulen). These could be entered between the years of 14 and 18. The course lasted four years, after which the young men were posted to the Army as Fähnriche with non-commissioned rank, eventually rising to the commissioned rank of Leutnant after another two years. The first three years of the course were devoted to general education, the last year to military education. For the k.u.k. Army fourteen such schools existed: Wien; Budapest; Prag; Karlstadt; Königsfeld, near Brunn; Lemberg; Nagyszeben; Liebenau; Innsbruck; Temesvár; Kamenica, near Peterwardein; Hainburg (for engineers); Mährisch-Weisskirchen (for cavalry); and Traiskirchen (for artillery). For the k.k. Landwehr and the Honvéd there were similar schools at Wien, Pecs and Nagyvárad.

b. The Preparatory Schools (Militärrealschulen). These were affiliated to the military academies and were intended for officers sons. Youths entered the lower schools (Unterrealschulen) between the ages of 10 and 12, and passed thence into the upper schools (Oberrealschulen) between the ages of 14 and 16, out of which they passed into the military academies between the ages of 18 and 20.

• Six Unterrealschulen existed for the k.u.k. Army: Koszeg; Maros-Väsärhely; Fischau; St Polten; Strass in Steirmark; and Enns.
• Six Oberrealschulen existed for the k.u.k. Army: Mährisch-Weisskirchen; Krakau; Kismarton; Kassa; Marburg; and Pozsony.
• For the k.k. Landwehr there was an Oberrealschule in Wien and for the Honvéd a similar establishment at Sopron.

c. The Military Academies (Militärakademien) might be entered at the age of 18 by those who had finished their studies at an Oberrealschule. After a three years course, students were passed out into the various branches of the Army with the rank of Leutnant. The four military academies were:

• The Maria-Theresa Military Academy (Theresianische Militärakademie) at Wiener Neustadt, supplied officers for the k.u.k. Army.
• The Technical Military Academy (Technische Militärakademie) at Mödling near Wien, supplied officers for the k.u.k. Army
• The Francis Joseph Military Academy (Franz-Josef Militärakademie) supplied officers for the k.k. Landwehr, at Wien.
• The Ludovic Military Academy (Ludowika Akademie) at Budapest which was similar to the Maria-Theresa Academy but was intended to supply officers for the Honvéd.

d. The One-Year Volunteers (Einjährig Freiwillige) were young men who had reached a certain standard of education and undertook to clothe, feed and equip themselves; and in the mounted branches, to supply their own horse and saddlery. At the end of a year with the colours they could either continue their service with the active army, or be passed into the reserve; in both cases they then took an examination qualifying them to become officers. After passing this examination they were given the rank of ensign on probation (Probe-Fähnrich). Then after a further examination they were appointed Fähnriche, ranking in seniority after those who had attained the rank of Fähnrich by passing through the Cadet Schools. Those who were passed into the reserve, after passing the examination qualifying them to become officers, automatically in course of time attained the rank of Fähnrich in the Reserve.

Thus it came about that in peace-time, for aspirant officers qualifying through the Cadet Schools and for one-year volunteers, the attainment of the rank of Fähnrich meant that an officer's commission would follow automatically - generally within two years - while for aspirant officers qualifying through the Military Academies the commission followed the successful passing of the final examination without the intermediary rank of Fähnrich having to be attained. The rank of Fähnrich could not be attained by promotion from the ranks.

20. Recruitment of Officers during the war:

a. Whereas before the war the standard of education required of aspirant officers was that of the Realschule and Gymnasium, after the outbreak of war it was lowered to that of the Mittelschule. The volunteer system was considerably enlarged at the same time, and in addition to the Cadet Schools, a large number of schools for reserve officers (Reserveoffiziersschulen) were instituted. The promotion of one-year volunteers was also much accelerated through the various non-commissioned ranks; suitable one-year volunteers, who had successfully done duty at a depot as draft instructors (see paragraph 22a), could be put on the list of Kadettaspiranten (see Note below), and as such, could after two months service with a unit in the field, or as a result of distinguished services, be appointed a Reserve Cadet - see sub-paragraph c. below. The promotion of reserve cadets to reserve ensigns and thence to reserve officers followed in due course.

NOTE. Kadettaspirant was the title given to those one-year volunteers and war volunteers (Kriegsfreiwillige) whose standard of education qualified them for service with the active army (Präsenzdienst): they must have passed through a course (Kriegskurs) at a school for reserve officers and apart from their theoretical and practical suitability, have possessed the necessary moral and social qualifications, thereby entitling them to wear the one-year volunteer button.

b. It was through the schools for reserve officers that the bulk of officers commissioned during the war had to pass. As the war progressed, the demand for an increase in the number of officers was met by the granting of commissions not in the active army but in the reserve.

c. During the war officers in the reserve were recruited mainly from reserve cadets (Kadetten in der Reserve); these in their turn were recruited from:

• One-year volunteers, who had distinguished themselves in the. field and proved themselves to possess both the practical qualifications of a platoon commander and the requisite social and moral qualifications.
• War volunteers, who possessed the necessary qualifications to render them eligible to become one-year volunteers.
• Reserve non-commissioned officers, who had been decorated with a Tapferkeits-Medaille for bravery in the field and possessed the necessary social, moral and intellectual qualifications to render them eligible to become one-year volunteers.

THE TRAINING OF OFFICERS

21. The training of Officers in peace-time: apart from the elementary training of officers as outlined in paragraph 19, instruction at institutes and courses for officers may be divided under two general headings:
a. Institutes and courses dealing with higher military education in general.
b. Institutes and courses dealing with particular branches and special subjects

The former included the Kriegsschule, the Korpsoffiziersschulen and Landwehr courses for officers; referred to in paragraph 14. The latter included cavalry, pioneers, musketry, fencing and gymnastics, medical, veterinary and aviation schools; field, fortress and mountain artillery schools; higher artillery and engineer courses (from the graduates of which the artillery and engineer staffs were recruited); military equitation institutes, artillery riding courses, transport courses and courses for technical troops. And also an infantry and cavalry telegraph course, and courses in military administration (intendance, supply etc).

22. The training of Officers in wartime: early in 1915 the following regulations were laid down for the training of one-year volunteers, war volunteers and Landsturm with the one-year volunteer badge; the training differed according to the arm of service which the aspirant officer or cadet entered.

a. Infantry and Jäger, Train and Medical Services:

• First- Six weeks military training; then,
• Second- Six weeks at a school for reserve officers where the greatest stress was laid on the practical side of training, the theoretical being cut down to the minimum.
• Third- Those who were successful in the second step above, were styled Offiziersanwarter, and were posted to depots as draft instructors.
• Fourth- The best, as the need arose, were incorporated straight into Marsch units; the remainder, before going to the front, underwent another four weeks‘ practical training while employed as draft instructors.

b. Cavalry, Artillery and Technical Troops:

• First- Eight weeks military training, special attention being given to the attainment of perfect horsemanship; theoretical instruction being confined to evening classes; then,
• Second- Eight weeks at a school for reserve officers. The first four weeks were devoted to theoretical and practical training; the remaining four to infantry training, special attention being paid to training as section commanders (Schwarmkdt) and platoon commanders (Zugskdt) and in fire control (Feurleitung) and rifle shooting. For this purpose part of the course took place at a practice camp (Übungslager).
• Third- Those who were successful in the second step above were styled Offiziersanwarter and were posted to depots, where they received another four weeks‘ practical training and were employed as draft instructors.

NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICERS (UNTEROFFIZIERE)

23. In peace-time non-commissioned officers were obtained solely by promotion in the ranks. See paragraph 29 for their badges of rank. Courses were held during the winter months in the various units for their training and promotion.

24. Non-commissioned officers could not marry without the permission of their commanding officer. This permission was not granted unless the marriage would improve the material situation of the individuals in question. Two scales of marriage were open to non-commissioned officers:
a. Ehe der ersten Art, in which the couple received lodging and furniture free, and the wife, in the absence of the husband on active service, received a ration of food. The number of marriages on this scale were limited.
b. Ehe der zweiten Art, in which no lodging was provided or food ration allowed.

25. In the middle of 1915 non-commissioned officers were classified in two grades: a higher (höhere Unteroffiziere) and a lower (niedere Unterofiziere). The former were graded in the 12th Rangklasse, but took precedence before the Gagisten ohne Rangklasse, and comprised the two ranks of:

a. Offizierstellvertreter or acting officer. This rank was created in June 1915, partly to facilitate the replacement of subaltern officers, ensigns and platoon commanders by non-commissioned officers with the additional authority conferred by this rank, and partly to make it possible to reward senior non-commissioned officers who had rendered distinguished services in the field, and to stimulate them by opening out to them the chance of promotion to this higher rank. Only non-commissioned officers who had served at least one month in the field as Stabsunteroffiziere (see sub-paragraph b below) were eligible for promotion to Offizierstellvertreter. The rank (Charge) did not carry with it the right to use the term as a title (Titel). Though treated as officers in the field, they were not entitled to the privileges of permanent commissioned rank.

b. Stabsunteroffizier. These were styled Stabsfeldwebel if they belonged to the infantry or technical troops; Stabsoberjäger if they were Jäger; Stabswachtmeister if they were cavalry: or Stabsfeuerwerker if they belonged to the artillery. They had to be able, if necessary, to perform the duties of, although they could never replace, a subaltern officer. Their main function was that of 'inspection officer' of the battalion, half-regiment (if cavalry) or section (if artillery) to which they belonged; while their powers were similar to those of an Offizierstellvertreter, their privileges were similar to those of a Feldwebel.

26. Non-commissioned officers of the lower grade (niedere Unteroffiziere) bore the following ranks:

27. No non-commissioned officer could in peace-time be promoted to the rank of officer. A private could receive the acting rank (titular Charge) of lance-corporal, and any non-commissioned officer could be similarly promoted to the acting rank next above his own. The acting rank, however, though carrying with it all the other prerogatives of that rank, did not confer the pay and allowances of the higher rank.

28. With the outbreak of war, promotion of non-commissioned officers was considerably accelerated; their promotion for bravery in the field was common.

BADGES OF RANK - OFFICERS AND NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICERS

29. All badges of rank were worn on the collar of the tunic or jacket.

All the above badges were worn on a red background

Staff officers wore their badges of rank on a background of the colour of their regimental facings - see Note below.

NOTE. Facing colours were based upon nine primary colours broken down into twenty eight shades. At the same time regiments wore either white or yellow metal buttons. Of course in field uniform these were not used and all badges were on the pike-grey of that uniform.

ANNEX 1 TO APPENDIX C TO CHAPTER 2 - NON-COMBATANT OFFICERS
a: Chaplains (Militärgeistliche)

b: Others

• In the Honvéd, paymasters were styled Oekonomieoffiziereinstead of Rechnungsführer.
• The term Militärseelsorge which is seen on some postal items meant the Spiritual Welfare branch of a headquarters or unit.
• Here and below, the hyphens are inserted for layout purposes and do not exist in the original German!

ANNEX 2 TO APPENDIX C TO CHAPTER 2
Military Officials

• 1. Similar officials existed for the kk Landwehr and for the Honvéd.
• 2. Formerly known as Militärmedikamentenbeamten.
• 3. Similar officials existed for the kk Landwehr.

More Military Officials

• 1. Similar officials existed for the kk Landwehr and for the Honvéd.
• 2. The Military Works Department had a separate audit and control branch, except that there was no V Rangklasse and they were styled Militärbauoberrechnungsrat 1 Kl. etc.

Finally, apart from the Military Officials shown in this Annex there were technical officials of the Military Geography Institute, of the Military Technical Committee and of Transport Material Institutes (Trainzeugsanstalten), military superintendents of works (Militärbauwerkführer), military professors (Militärlehrer), fencing masters (Militärfechtmeister), and the higher agriculture and forestry officials.

Last updated 25 Feb 2002